galileo and church essays

galileo and church essays Galileo, Science and the Church, by Jerome J. Langford, are about the trials and tribulations of Galileo with the Roman Catholic Church in the 1600s. The church did not agree with Galileos ideas; mainly theories associated with Copernican astronomy. The primary intention of Langford is to bring the truth of Galileos trials to his readers, and to show that ultimately Galileo was correct in his theories and was not trying to go against the churches belief. Galileo was merely trying to seek truth in science, and wanted to be known as a historical scientific figure. Therefore, Galileo was unjustly accused, ridiculed, and convicted of heresy. In Galileos defense of heresy, Langford writes, This was an unfortunate decision on several accounts. First the Copernican opinion was treated as heretical when, in reality, it was not. (155) Langford goes on to explain that the theological Consultors in 1616 recognized the earths mobility as formally heretical, but this did not make the immobility of the earth a matter of faith. Catholic philosophers and theologians also agree that the decree of the Holy Office did not make the immobility of the earth or the mobility of the sun a matter of faith. These points clearly support the argument of Galileos unjust conviction of heresy. Langford also uses excerpts of other writings to illustrate his main points. The following is one of many excerpts Langford uses: Inasmuch as no dogmatic decision was rendered in this case, either on the part of the Pope or on the part of a Council ruled by the Pope and approved by him, it is not, by virtue of that decree of the Congregation, a doctrine of faith that the sun is moving and the earth standing still.... Yet every Catholic is bound by virtue of obedience to conform to the decree of the Congregation, or at least not to teach what is directly opposed to i ...

List of Poets Laureate of the U.S.A.

List of Poets Laureate of the U.S.A. Who are all the poets who have served the Library of Congress as Consultant (the old title) or Poet Laureate Consultant (the new title)? Learn more about the lives and works of these distinguished artists through the resources listed below. 1937-1949 Joseph Auslander 1937-41: His sonnet, â€Å"To My Despoiler†Allen Tate 1943-44: His essay on writing poetry, â€Å"Narcissus As Narcissus†Robert Penn Warren 1944-45Louise Bogan 1945-46Karl Shapiro 1946-47Robert Lowell 1947-48Leonie Adams 1948-49Elizabeth Bishop 1949-50 1950s Conrad Aiken 1950-52: First to serve two termsWilliam Carlos Williams: Appointed to serve two terms in 1952 but did not serve.Randall Jarrell 1957-58Robert Frost 1958-59Richard Eberhart 1959-61: â€Å"A Student’s Memories of Richard Eberhart,† by David Graham 1960s Louis Untermeyer 1961-63: His poems â€Å"Prayer,† â€Å"Summons† and â€Å"On the Birth of a Child† and â€Å"Reveille†Howard Nemerov 1963-64Reed Whittemore 1964-65Stephen Spender 1965-66James Dickey 1966-68William Jay Smith 1968-70: His â€Å"Epigrams† 1970s William Stafford 1970-71Josephine Jacobsen 1971-73Daniel Hoffman 1973-74Stanley Kunitz 1974-76Robert Hayden 1976-78William Meredith 1978-80 1980s Maxine Kumin 1981-82Anthony Hecht 1982-84Robert Fitzgerald 1984-85: Appointed and served in a health-limited capacity, but did not come to the Library of CongressReed Whittemore 1984-85: Interim Consultant in Poetry  Gwendolyn Brooks 1985-86  Robert Penn Warren 1986-87: First to be designated Poet Laureate Consultant in PoetryRichard Wilbur 1987-88Howard Nemerov 1988-90 1990s Mark Strand 1990-91Joseph Brodsky 1991-92Mona Van Duyn 1992-93Rita Dove 1993-95: Her poem, â€Å"Lady Freedom Among Us†Robert Hass 1995-97:  Poems, translations, bibliography and articles about Hass’ workRobert Pinsky 1997-2000​:  His Favorite Poem Project 2000s Stanley Kunitz 2000-2001​Billy Collins 2001-2003: His Poetry 180 Project to bring poetry into American high schoolsLouise Glà ¼ck 2003-2004Ted Kooser 2004-2005: Excerpt from his book, The Poetry Home Repair Manual, Practical Advice for Beginning PoetsDonald Hall 2006-2007: His reading of, â€Å"Poetry Across the Atlantic,† in a historic joint reading with U.S. Poet Laureate Hall and UK Poet Laureate Andrew MotionCharles Simic 2007-2008Kay Ryan 2008-2010:  Her poems, audio readings and podcasts 2010s W.S. Merwin 2010-2011Philip Levine 2011-2012Natasha Trethewey 2012-

Healthcare Management Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Healthcare Management - Research Paper Example One should believe that a change in the thinking ideologies of people is something that must be made apparent in the present times. Health manpower would do a lot of good within the market because this is needed from a human perspective. It would set things rights because health is always a priority for individuals and more so within a society which wants to create the most righteous buzz about its inmates and indeed the processes. Recruiting the best available manpower within the healthcare regimes would mean that something or the other is being done properly and for the welfare of the people at large. It will also set the basis of finding the exact ways and means through which health related standards will see the light of the day (Mintz, 2004). What is even more significant is how well the health manpower would set the ball rolling for the good things to follow within the healthcare realms, and it would thus set the basis for enacting new measures and discerning novel ways to reach out to the needy and the suffering on a proactive level (Sorell, 1998). When the discussion of health manpower is done, the role of health education within the market realms would also seem like a necessity. Health education is necessary because it resolves all the predicaments that are attached with healthcare and how people find a way to keep their health standards high at all times. These discussions are relevant because they speak of the problems which engulf the lives of the people and thus are very quintessential if seen within the correct settings. The health education shall always improve within the market because it has to, without any prejudice or malice against its development and growth over a period of time. When the health personnel are available, the issue of health manpower becomes easy to tackle. It takes care of the demand and recruitment of health professionals that are skilled enough to take care of the issues which encircle the lives of the patients on

Marketing Environment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Marketing Environment - Essay Example The company was recently noted to have started transactions with the economy of Japan by offering the Japanese customers with regular and premium quality of wine. In its future expansion panning, Company A has selected the market of China owing to the opportunities and the threats presented by the Chinese wine industry in comparison to the other probable target markets including that of UK and USA (Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, 2012). The core objective of this paper is to state the procedure of expansion of a wine company from Australia to the selected market of China explaining the reason for focusing on the Chinese market rather than USA and UK. With this concern, the study will emphasize on conducting a situational analysis in order to gain an in-depth understanding of the target market, based on which, particular strategies will be suggested to the company with regards to its expansion plan. Country Brief All the three prospective markets for Company A’s expans ion planning, including China, USA and UK, are having good trade relationships with Australia. In the three countries the demand for wine is high and plays an influencing role for the wine producer or company. However, it is worth mentioning that a few differences made Company A to choose Chinese market for its expansion. With a substantial rise in the total population of China, demand in the wine industry have also been noted to increase at a significant rate as wine is considered to be an inseparable part of Chinese culture and lifestyle (Conley, 2007). On the other hand, the population of USA is increasing, but at a low pace. However, the demand for wine is increasing rapidly and has influenced many companies to expand their businesses in USA. It is in this context, the USA wine industry can be identified as majorly captured by the national companies which develop the industry to be a concentrated one with barriers for the foreign companies. Hence, while deciding upon expanding t o the USA market, Company A might have to face various competitive factors which might restrict its sustainable growth (Colman & Paster, 2007). The Chinese wine market can further be regarded as more promising than the UK market based on various facts. For instance, UK has witnessed a significant fall in its overall consumption of alcohol due to increased taxation rate and other legal constraints. The recently recorded figure shows that the consumption of alcohol in UK fell by 11% in 2010 in comparison to that of 2004. Moreover, impositions of duty charges and other taxation limits also act as barrier to foreign wine companies to enter in the UK market. On the other hand, China has gradually developed as a leading purchaser of alcohol in the international market. Moreover, in the international context, China has also been observed to consume more quantity of wine than USA (The Wine and Spirit Trade Association, 2011). The growing population in China along with the subsequently incre asing demands in the market plays a significant role as a vital attracting aspect to many foreign companies, especially in the current wine industry. Australia and China are interdependent on each other in terms of foreign trade through Free Trade Agreement (FTA). Subsequently Company A, being an Australian company, can enjoy various benefits in terms

Evolution of Skyscrapers Essay Example for Free

Evolution of Skyscrapers Essay 1.Historical Development In High-Rise Buildings Ancient Skyscrapers The Great Ziggurat of Babylon Perhaps the most impressive structure in the ancient Middle East, the Great Ziggurat of Babylon was built over a span of several decades in the Sixth Century BC. Its seven stories, built upon a square foundation, stretched 300 feet into the sky. Some think it was the inspiration for the infamous Tower of Babel in the Book of Genesis. In this illustration, King Nebuchadnezzar, who ruled Babylon from 604 to 561 BC, is seen overlooking his capital The towers of Bologna The towers of and were built in Europe, or together until Bologna are slender, as much as 60 meters (150 feet) tall, by the rich for defense and as status symbols. No other site perhaps the world, had so many tall structures crowded the coming of skyscrapers in the late 19th century. Fig. 1 The great Ziggurat of Babylon As many as 180 towers, of many different heights, are thought to have been built in Bologna during the 1100s and slightly later; now there are barely 20. The two most prominent (seen here) are the symbols of the city and have long been known together as the Two Towers. Fig. 2 The towers of Bologna The First Safety Elevators In this period illustration, shoppers ride the elevator in the new Lord Taylors department store on Broadway in New York City sometime during the 1870s. Around the same time, the first-ever elevator in an office building was also installed in New York. It was designed by Elisha Otis, whose company became synonymous with the new contraption. Elevators revolutionized office buildings, literally turning them upside down. Prior to their invention, the lower floors of a structure were the most valuable rental property because of the difficulty and inconvenience of climbing the stairs. But the elevator made it possible for elite tenants to enjoy the view from the upper floors and allow buildings to rise higher and higher. Fig. 3 The first Safety Elevators Great Chicago Fire In this illustration, Chicago residents flee the terror of the Chicago fire which devastated their city over a three-day period in October 1871. The fire caused nearly $200 million in damage, killed some 300 people and left another 100,000 homeless. Despite this toll, the destruction cleared the way for Chicago to build scores of modern steel-framed office towers and to become one of Americas most architecturally striking cities. Fig. 4 Great Chicago Fire The First skyscraper Chicagos 10-story Home Insurance Building, built in 1884 and designed by William Jenney, was arguably the first true modern office tower. It was the first building to use structural steel at least partially in its frame, and was the first tall building to be fireproofed both inside and outside. It was torn down in 1931 but its legacy lives on in thousands of steel-framed and fireproofed buildings around the world. Fig. 5 Home Insurance Building The Tribune Tower Pedestrians walk past the ornate entrance and lower floors of Tribune Tower, home of the Chicago Tribune newspaper, which was built in 1925. The 36-story Gothic Revival structure was designed by John Mead Howells and Raymond Hood, who won a contest held by the newspaper company to create the most beautiful and distinctive office building in the world. Fig. 6 The Tribune Tower The Chrysler Building With its majestic spire, New York Citys Chrysler Building is perhaps the most famous Art Deco structure in the world. Built in 1930, the 77-storey structure was briefly the tallest building in the world. The sculptures at the top and around the edges are actually inspired by Chrysler hubcaps and hood ornaments. The buildings tapering profile is perhaps the best example of form follows zoning by taking New York Citys setback requirements from 1916 zoning laws requiring new structures to leave more open space around them and turning them into an stunning archetype Fig. 7 The Chrysler Building The Empire State Building survives a hit This photo shows the spot where a B-25 bomber struck the Empire State Building in July 1945. The aircraft was ferrying servicemen from Massachusetts to New Yorks La Guardia Airport when pilot William Smith veered disastrously off course in heavy fog. Fourteen people including Smith were killed when the bomber hit the skyscraper. The buildings 79th floor caught fire, and New York City firefighters bravely rushed up into the building to rescue occupants and put out the blaze. The buildings structure and fireproofing both proved strong enough that the New York landmark reopened the following week. Fig. 8 The Empire State Building World Trade Centre The famous twin towers of the World Trade Center were built by the Port Authority in the 1960s as part of an effort to revitalize lower Manhattan. The structure was derided by critics as boring. One wag likened it to a giant pair of filing cabinets, but in time it became a popular New York landmark. The original WTC was the first to use sky lobbies where people would change from express to local elevators, a setup inspired by the New York subway system. It also had wide-open, column-free spaces that were ideal for Fig. 9 The World Trade Centre the cubicles then becoming popular in office design. The towers were destroyed in the 2001 terrorist attack that killed more than 2,700 people Sears Tower When the Sears Tower, later renamed the Willis Tower, opened in 1973, the 108-story structure became the tallest building in the world and held that title until Malaysias Petronas Towers claimed the distinction in 1998. This skyscraper was able to achieve that height through a spectacular engineering innovation that introduced the bundled tube structure the Sears Tower is really nine square towers bundled together. It was the start of a revolution in structural design that permitted higher and thinner towers than had ever been built before Fig. 10 The Sears Tower The Citicorp Building Skirts Disaster The 59-story Citigroup Center building, completed in 1977, had to undergo a costly strength upgrade the following year after it was discovered that the structure was dangerously vulnerable to strong diagonal winds hitting the buildings corners. This weakness was a consequence of the placement of the main support columns at the centre of the sides rather than on the corners because the building had to float over a church that owned the property. This bold design did win praise for the architect but he subsequently had to suffer the consequences largely in secret lest panic break out of experimenting with untested structural elements. If strong dangerous winds had actually toppled the Citicorp building, it is estimated that it might have taken 16 blocks of Manhattan with it. Fig. 11 The Citicorp Building The Petronas Tower Tourists have their picture taken outside the soaring spires of the Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The 88-story towers, which were completed in the mid-to-late 1990s, were for several years the worlds tallest buildings. The project was the harbinger of a global shift in skyscraper building in which Middle Eastern and Asian countries have been racing to erect the tallest and most majestic towers Fig. 12 The Petronas Tower The Gherkin, London One of the more unusual sights in the London skyline is 20 St. Mary Axe, a 41-story office tower opened in 2004, which is nicknamed The Gherkin because of its resemblance to a pickle. Though odd-looking, the structure is a prototype for a new generation of innovative, super energy-efficient buildings. Vertical gaps in the building create a natural ventilation system that allows warm air to rise out of the structure. These openings also allow the interior offices to use more Fig. 13 The 20 St. Mary Axe natural light to greatly reducing electrical consumption The Marina Bay Sands Singapores Marina Bay Sands, a casino and resort complex which opened in 2011, cost an astonishing $8 billion to build. Architect Moshie Safdies unorthodox design, with its trio of 55-story towers, reportedly was inspired by card decks on gaming tables. The three towers are connected by a giant terrace that supports the worlds longest elevated swimming pool. The steel for the pool weighs 191,416 kilos (422,000 pounds) and the water it can hold weighs an additional 1,424,098 kilos (3,139,600 pounds). The towers are constructed to allow movement in the wind up to 50 centimetres and longer-term settling in the soil. Fig. 14 The Marina Bay Sands Burj Khalifa Dubais 160-storey Burj Khalifa, which opened in 2010, is by far the worlds tallest building. Its startling, rocket ship-like appearance, seen in this photo, seems intended to get attention more than anything else. As architectural critic Paul Goldberger has written, You dont build this kind of skyscraper to house people you do it to make sure the world knows who you are. The tall, tapering design is reminiscent of skyscrapers like the Chrysler Fig. 15 The Burj Khalifa and Empire State buildings although you could put the two New York skyscrapers one on top of the other and they still would not be as tall. The New World Trade Centre One World Trade Center (also known as Tower One) rises over lower Manhattan on the site of where the twin towers destroyed in 2001. When completed in 2013, it will have a spire thats precisely 1,776 feet tall (541 meters), making it the third tallest building in the world and the highest in the Western Hemisphere. The new WTCs base is enclosed in thick concrete, steel panels and blast-resistant glass, making it one of the toughest skyscrapers ever built, but security concerns have caused the buildings cost to soar, reaching the vicinity of $4 billion. Fig. 16The New World Trade Centre Fig. 17 Height Comparison of Noticeable Tall Buildings 2. Classification of Tall Building Structure System In 1969 Fazlur Khan classified structural systems for tall buildings relating to their heights with considerations for efficiency in the form of â€Å"Heights for Structural Systems† diagrams Fig. 18 Classification of Tall Building Structure System by Fazlur Khan. Left : steel; Right: Concrete He developed these schemes for both steel and concrete. Khan argued that the rigid frame that had dominated tall building design and construction so long was not the only system fitting for tall buildings. Because of a better understanding of the mechanics of material and member behavior, he reasoned that the structure could be treated in a holistic manner, that is, the building could be analyzed in three dimensions, supported by computer simulations, rather than as a series of planar systems in each principal direction. Feasible structural systems, according to him, are rigid frames, shear walls, interactive frame-shear wall combinations, belt trusses, and the various other tubular systems. Structural systems of tall buildings can be divided into two broad categories: interior structures and exterior structures. This classification is based on the distribution of the components of the primary lateral load-resisting system over the building. A system is categorized as an interior structure when the major part of the lateral load resisting system is located within the interior of the building. Likewise, if the major part of the lateral load-resisting system is located at the building perimeter, a system is categorized as an exterior structure. It should be noted, however, that any interior structure is likely to have some minor components of the lateral load-resisting system at the building perimeter, and any exterior structure may have some minor components within the interior of the building. This classification of structural systems is presented more as a guideline and should be treated as such. It is imperative that each system has a wide range of height applications depending upon other design and service criteria related to building shape, aspect ratio, architectural functions, load cond itions, building stability and site constraints. For each condition, however, there is always an optimum structural system, although it may not necessarily match one of those in the system’s tables due to the predominant influence of other factors on the building form. The height limits shown are therefore presumptive based on experience and the authors’ prediction within an acceptable range of aspect ratios of the buildings, say about 6 to 8. On occasions, an exterior structure may be combined with an interior one, such as when a tubular frame is also braced or provided with core-supported outriggers and belt trusses, to enhance the building’s stiffness 2.1 Interior Structures The two basic types of lateral load-resisting systems in the category of interior structures are the moment-resisting frames and shear trusses/shear walls. These systems are usually arranged as planar assemblies in two principal orthogonal directions and may be employed together as a combined system in which they interact. Another very important system in this category is the core-supported outrigger structure, which is very widely used for super tall buildings at this writing. The moment-resisting frame (MRF) consists of horizontal (girder) and vertical (column) members rigidly connected together in a planar grid form. Such frames resist load primarily through the flexural stiffness of the members (Kowalczyk, Sinn, Kilmister, 1995). The size of the columns is mainly controlled by the gravity loads that accumulate towards the base of the building giving rise to progressively larger column sizes towards the base from the roof. The size of the girders, on the other hand, is controlled by stiffness of the frame in order to ensure acceptable lateral sway of the building. Although gravity load is more or less the same in all typical floors of a tall building, the girder sizes need to be increased to increase the frame stiffness. Likewise, columns already sized for gravity loads need to be slightly increased to increase the frame stiffness as well. MRFs can be located in or around the core, on the exterior, and throughout the interior of the building along grid lines. Table 1 Interior Structures Braced frames are laterally supported by vertical steel trusses, also called shear trusses, which resist lateral loads primarily through axial stiffness of the members. These act as vertical cantilever trusses where the columns act as chord members and the concentric K, V, or X braces act as web members. Such systems are called concentric braced frames (CBF). Eccentric braced frames (EBF) have, on the other hand, braces which are connected to the floor girders that form horizontal elements of the truss, with axial offsets to introduce flexure and shear into the frame (Popov, 1982). This lowers stiffness-to-weight ratio but increases ductility and therefore EBFs are used for seismic zones where ductility is an essential requirement of structural design. EBFs can also be used to accommodate wide doors and other openings, and have on occasions been used for non-seismic zones (Corrin Swensson, 1992). Braced frames are generally located in the service and elevator core areas of tall buildings. The frame diagonals are enclosed within the walls. Reinforced concrete planar solid or coupled shear walls have been one of the most popular systems used for high-rise construction to resist lateral forces caused by wind and earthquakes. They are treated as vertical cantilevers fixed at the base. When two or more shear walls in the same plane are interconnected by beams or slabs, as is the case with shear walls with door or window openings, the total stiffness of the system exceeds the sum of the individual wall stiffnesses. This is so because the connecting beam forces the walls to act as a single unit by restraining their individual cantilever actions. These are known as coupled shear walls. Shear walls used in tall office buildings are generally located around service and elevator cores, and stairwells. In fact, in many tall buildings, the vertical solid core walls that enclose the building services can be used to stabilize and stiffen the building against lateral loads. Many possibilities exist with single or multiple cores in a tall building with regard to their location, shape, number, and arrangement. The core walls are essentially shear walls that can be analyzed as planar elements in each principal direction or as three-dimensional elements using computer programs.

Max Planck :: essays research papers

Max Planck On April 23, 1858 Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck was born in Kiel, Germany. He was the sixth child of a law professor at the University of Kiel. At the age of nine his interest in physics and mathematics was developed by his teacher Hermann Muller. When he graduated at the age of seventeen he decided to choose physics over music for his career. Although he is know for physics he was an exceptional pianist who had acquired the gift of being able to hear absolute pitch. His favorite works of music were known to be Schubert and Brahms. Entering the University of Munich in 1874 he got little inspiration and was unimpressed at the University of Berlin which was between the years of 1877 and 1878. He in turn did independent studies primarily on Rudolf Clausius' writings of thermodynamics which inspired him and in July 1879 he received his doctoral degree at the age of twenty-one. He became a lecturer at the University of Munich. His father helped him be promoted to associate professor at Kiel by means of professional connections. At the age of thirty he was promoted to full professor at the University of Berlin. After he decided to become a theoretical physicist he started a quest for absolute laws. His favorite absolute law was the law of the conservation of energy which was the first law of thermodynamics that stated that you could take any equal amount of energy and transform it into the same equal amount of energy ideally, meaning no energy was lost. The second law of thermodynamics led him to discover the quantum of action or Planck's constant h. How he came upon his formula for quantum mechanics well be explained as follows. Planck saw that blackbody radiation acted in an absolute sense because it was defined by Kirchhoff as a substance that could absorb almost all radiating energy and emit all that it had absorbed perfectly which is associated with the first law of thermodynamics. By using various experiments and theoretical failures many scientists tried to find the spectral energy distribution to try and draw a diagram of a curve that showed the amount of radiation given off at different frequencies for a blackbody with a given temperature. Then using Wien's law which worked out for high frequencies but didn't work for low, he saw a relationship with the mathematics of the entropy of the radiation in the high- frequency waves in correlation to the low frequency waves and he guessed if he combined the two in the simplest way that he would get a formula that related to

Analysis of ‘Frankenstein’ by Mary Shelley Essay

Using close analysis of ‘Frankenstein’ by Mary Shelley and ‘Dracula’ by Bram Stoker, explain, using evidence, how both contain the characteristics of the gothic horror genre. I have been asked to write an essay comparing the two gothic horror novels, ‘Frankenstein’ and ‘Dracula’, explaining the characteristics of gothic horror. Frankenstein was written in 1818 by Mary Shelley. Shelley was born in August of 1797; during this time was a high interest of gothic horror genre. Shelley was inspired to write Frankenstein by the emotions she felt loosing her children. Shelley’s hopes of re-animating a corpse are transferred through the character or victor. The fact the novel is of the gothic horror genre was possibly the influence of the period it was written. The plot deals with the conflict within Frankenstein. Due to his love of the sciences he resurrects parts of dead corpses to form one monster like creature. Victor’s dreams to create a new life are demolished when Victor rejects the disgusting sight along with all people. The monster misunderstood and alone decides to take revenge by killing the people most close to Victor. Victor realises it is only him who can and must destroy what he created. But whilst he attempts this he is requested by the monster to create him another monster like companion. Caught between two moral responsibilities, his responsibility for his own creation and that towards the human race, Victor decides not to give life to a second creature. As a result the monster does what is most feared by Frankenstein and kills Frankenstein true love, Elizabeth. The monster, with no meaning of life, kills himself horrifically. Frankenstein’s main moral is don’t judge on appearance. Bram Stoker was born in 1847 and wrote Dracula in 1987. His vampire tale was supposedly the result of indigestion from a very spicy curry that resulted in a restless night of nightmares. ‘Dracula’ is the story of a vampire, Count Dracula, who lives in Transylvania. Jonathan Harker, a Lawyer travels to Dracula’s castle. It is there Jonathan discovers Dracula to be a vampire. He somehow manages to escape in an immense state of fear and shock. As a result to other vampiristic behaviour to Jonathan and others a group is formed consisting of Doctor Sword, Van Helsing, Jonathan and Mina who begin a pursuit for Dracula. They reach Transylvania and successfully destroy Dracula. The main moral to the story of Dracula is, no matter how powerful either side, in the battle of good versus evil good always triumphs over evil.

Mythology of Today

On the other hand there are many instances that show that Greek mythology still pulses through our veins and in our society; it's only in a efferent form that what how we normally see the Greek myths. The stories we know from history have strong parallels in the currently worshiped religion of Christianity. There are several tales and characters in Greek myth that can be paired with books and people from Christianity. First instance is the old Greek god Prometheus; he was the god whom gave us fire and the knowledge needed to allow mankind to grow and survive.When he did this he was then captured by Zeus and persecuted. His punishment was to be nailed to a rock and every day he'd have a giant eagle eat his liver and regenerate at the setting of each ay to do it again. Prometheus sacrificed himself for the well being of mankind. In a way, this character sound much like Jesus in modern day religion. Jesus was nailed to a cross as a sacrifice for the salvation of mankind. Prometheus is n ot the only one in Greek mythology that can be represented as Jesus, the later added Olympian wine god Dionysus shares some resemblance.Dionysus and Jesus are both the ones who game mankind the gift of wine and encourage a blissful lifestyle. The also both share the archetype of rebirth after death. Dionysus traveled to the underworld to search for his mother homo he never met and didn't know anything about. He wanted to bring her to Olympus since he was now considered a Olympian god. Dionysus went to the underworld to save a person he didn't know. Much like how Jesus went to hell after taking on the sins of all the humans on the earth.Then in a sense both Dionysus and Jesus rose up and were reborn from the place of the lowest level of existence. Almost all have heard the Flood story when Noah built a large boat to save himself, his family, and a pair Of all the animals in the world. Well in Greek mythology, there is also a flood story These religions also share the idea of giants a nd monsters once ruling the earth. In the Greek creation stories there were Cyclopes, Hysterectomies (hundred handlers) and the Titans. In Christianity there is a similar story with giants and large monsters that fight over the power of the world.Not many know of this book from Christian religious text because it was forbidden from the bible: the Book of Enoch. These giants in the bible were called Oenophile; they were half angel, half human, their fathers were renegade angels who fought god in order to help humanity, but in reality only lusted for human women. These beings that sprawled on every corner of the earth. Their appearance was similar to that in the Greek creation story as being these grotesque deformed creatures with great power.In the Book of Enoch, it states that God sent the Flood to dispose of these enormous beings that rivaled in power of god himself, much like how Zeus rivaled his father Crocus or how Crocus rivaled his father Chaos. Not only in common religion is there reminiscence of classical mythologies, they are also advertised, Worn, used, and distributed all over the globe. Almost everyone has used or at least seen an atlas, which was named from he titan that was forced to forever hold the world on his shoulders.Many people have also worn Mike products, the creators named there brand after the Greek god of victory. Then there is the Honda Odyssey and the Volkswagen Goes, named after the ten year long story of Odysseus and the Goddess of Dawn. Our culture even has sayings and terms like the Achilles Heel and having the Midas touch which are famous characters from Greek mythology. There are many more allusions and connections with Greek mythology to our culture. As was shone, Greek mythologies are alive and still a heavy influence on our ultra.Greek terms and names are thrown around everyday even if the meaning is not well known, many have the grand idea without the story behind it. So some people with this knowledge would argue with the belief that mythology is dying out They also are the people who may see the relations between classical mythology and currently worshiped religion. I use to say that mythology is nothing but a forgotten religion, but now I see that its really not all that forgotten. Which is why agree with professor Joseph Campbell when he said that â€Å"Myth is much more important and true than history.

Gettysburg Essays (817 words) - Gettysburg Battlefield, Free Essays

Gettysburg Essays (817 words) - Gettysburg Battlefield, Free Essays Gettysburg Fought July 1 through July 3, 1863, considered by most military historians the turning point in the American Civil War. The Battle of Gettysburg was a decisive engagement in that it arrested the Confederates' second and last major invasion of the North, destroyed their offensive strategy, and forced them to fight a defensive war in which the inadequacies of their manufacturing capacity and transportation facilities doomed them to defeat. The Army of the Potomac, under the Union general George Gordon Meade, numbered about 85,000; the Confederate army, under General Robert E. Lee, numbered about 75,000. After the Battle of Chancellorsville on May 2 to 4, an important victory for the Confederates, Lee divided his army into three corps, commanded by three lieutenant generals: James Longstreet, Richard Stoddert Ewell, and Ambrose Powell Hill. Lee then formulated a plan for invading Pennsylvania, hoping to avert another federal offensive in Virginia and planning to fight if he could get the federal army into a vulnerable position; he also hoped that the invasion might increase Northern war-weariness and lead the North to recognize the independence of the Confederate States of America. In pursuit of this plan, Lee crossed the Blue Ridge Mountains, proceeded up the Shenandoah Valley, and, crossing Maryland, entered Pennsylvania. Upon learning federal troops were north of the Potomac, Lee decided to concentrate his who! le army at Gettysburg. On June 30, Confederate troops from General Hill's corps, on their way to Gettysburg, noted federal troops that Meade had moved down to intercept the Confederate army. The battle began on July 1 outside of Gettysburg with an encounter between Hill's advance brigades and the federal cavalry division commanded by Major General John Buford, supported by infantry under Major General John Fulton Reynolds. Hill encountered stubborn resistance, and the fighting was inconclusive until Ewell arrived from the north in the afternoon. The Confederates pushed against General Oliver Howard's corps and forced the federal troops to retire from their forward positions to Culp's Hill and Cemetery Ridge, southeast of Gettysburg. The fighting had been heavy on both sides, but the Union troops suffered more losses. More than 4000 men were taken prisoner by the Confederates, and Federal General John Reynolds was killed in battle. The federals did manage to capture Confederate General Archer, the fi! rst Confederate officer to be taken prisoner after Lee assumed command of the Confederate army. The corps led by Ewell did not move in to attack the Union troops but waited for General Longstreet to bring in his corps to reinforce the outnumbered Confederate troops. On the following day, July 2, Meade formed his forces in the shape of a horseshoe, extending westward from Culp's Hill and southward along Cemetery Ridge to the hills of Little Round Top and Round Top. The Confederates, on the other hand, were deployed in a long, thin, concave line, with Longstreet and Ewell on the flanks and Hill in the center. Lee, against the advice of Longstreet and despite the fact that he had no cavalry, resolved to attack the federal positions. Longstreet was unable to advance until late afternoon, thus allowing the federal troops to make preparations for the expected assault. General Abner Doubleday of the federal army strengthened his hold on Cemetery Hill. The federals held Cemetery Ridge and Little Round Top, but Longstreet moved Confederate troops along Peach Orchard, driving the federals from their positions there. Although Ewell won part of Culp's Hill, he was unable to break the federal line there or on the eastern part of Cemetery Ridge. On the night of July 2, Meade held a council of war in which the decision was made not to retreat. On the third day of battle, the federals were secure in their positions and the Confederates had lost their offensive stance. General Lee decided to mount an attack despite opposition from other Confederate generals. The offensive did not begin until afte! r noon. Groups from three Confederate divisions, including the division led by Major General George E. Pickett, totaling fewer than 15,000 men, took part in a memorable charge on Cemetery Ridge against a withering barrage of federal artillery and musket fire. The attack is known as Pickett's Charge. Although the Confederate troops breached Meade's first line

The Complete IB Chemistry Syllabus SL and HL

The Complete IB Chemistry Syllabus SL and HL SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips IB Chemistry is tough. If you are reading this syllabus, I assume you are interested in potentially taking this course or you are currently enrolled in the course. In this article, I'll discuss every topic covered in IB Chemistry Standard Level and IB Chemistry Higher Level and the number of hours dedicated to each topic along with what the IB expects you to understand in each topic. IB Chemistry SL and HL Core Both IB Chemistry SL and HL cover the first 11 topics (a total of 95 hours), and HL additionally covers topics 12 to 21 (an additional 60 hours). For both levels, you'll also study one of the four options A-D (15 hours for SL, 25 hours for HL). Want to get better grades and test scores? We can help. PrepScholar Tutors is the world's best tutoring service. We combine world-class expert tutors with our proprietary teaching techniques. Our students have gotten A's on thousands of classes, perfect 5's on AP tests, and ludicrously high SAT Subject Test scores. Whether you need help with science, math, English, social science, or more, we've got you covered. Get better grades today with PrepScholar Tutors. Topic #1: Stoichiometric Relationships- 13.5 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Introduction to the particulate nature of matter and chemical change 1.1 "Atoms of different elements combine in fixed ratios to form compounds, which have different properties from their component elements." "Mixtures contain more than one element and/or compound that are not chemically bonded together and so retain their individual properties." "Mixtures are either homogeneous or heterogeneous." The mole concept 1.2 "The mole is a fixed number of particles and refers to the amount, n, of substance." "Masses of atoms are compared on a scale relative to 12C and are expressed as relative atomic mass (Ar) and relative formula/molecular mass (Mr)." "Molar mass (M) has the units g mol-1." "The empirical formula and molecular formula of a compound give the simplest ratio and the actual number of atoms present in a molecule respectively." Reacting masses and volumes 1.3 "Reactants can be either limiting or excess." "The experimental yield can be different from the theoretical yield." "Avogadro’s law enables the mole ratio of reacting gases to be determined from volumes of the gases." "The molar volume of an ideal gas is a constant at specified temperature and pressure." "The molar concentration of a solution is determined by the amount of solute and the volume of solution." "A standard solution is one of known concentration." Topic #2: Atomic Structure- 6 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand The nuclear atom 2.1 "Atoms contain a positively charged dense nucleus composed of protons and neutrons (nucleons)." "Negatively charged electrons occupy the space outside the nucleus." "The mass spectrometer is used to determine the relative atomic mass of an element from its isotopic composition." Electron configuration 2.2 "Emission spectra are produced when photons are emitted from atoms as excited electrons return to a lower energy level." "The line emission spectrum of hydrogen provides evidence for the existence of electrons in discrete energy levels, which converge at higher energies." "The main energy level or shell is given an integer number, n, and can hold a maximum number of electrons, 2n2." "A more detailed model of the atom describes the division of the main energy level into s, p, d and f sub-levels of successively higher energies." "Sub-levels contain a fixed number of orbitals, regions of space where there is a high probability of finding an electron." "Each orbital has a defined energy state for a given electronic configuration and chemical environment and can hold two electrons of opposite spin." Topic #3: Periodicity- 6 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Periodic table 3.1 "The periodic table is arranged into four blocks associated with the four sub- levels- s, p, d, and f." "The periodic table consists of groups (vertical columns) and periods (horizontal rows)." "The period number (n) is the outer energy level that is occupied by electrons." "The number of the principal energy level and the number of the valence electrons in an atom can be deduced from its position on the periodic table." "The periodic table shows the positions of metals, non-metals and metalloids." Periodic trends 3.2 "Vertical and horizontal trends in the periodic table exist for atomic radius, ionic radius, ionization energy, electron affinity and electronegativity." "Trends in metallic and non-metallic behaviour are due to the trends above." "Oxides change from basic through amphoteric to acidic across a period." Topic #4: Chemical Bonding and Structure- 13.5 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Ionic bonding and structure 4.1 "Positive ions (cations) form by metals losing valence electrons." "Negative ions (anions) form by non-metals gaining electrons." "The number of electrons lost or gained is determined by the electron configuration of the atom." "The ionic bond is due to electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions." "Under normal conditions, ionic compounds are usually solids with lattice structures." Covalent bonding 4.2 "A covalent bond is formed by the electrostatic attraction between a shared pair of electrons and the positively charged nuclei." "Single, double and triple covalent bonds involve one, two and three shared pairs of electrons respectively." "Bond length decreases and bond strength increases as the number of shared electrons increases." "Bond polarity results from the difference in electronegativities of the bonded atoms." Covalent structures 4.3 "Lewis (electron dot) structures show all the valence electrons in a covalently bonded species." "The â€Å"octet rule† refers to the tendency of atoms to gain a valence shell with a total of 8 electrons." "Some atoms, like Be and B, might form stable compounds with incomplete octets of electrons." "Resonance structures occur when there is more than one possible position for a double bond in a molecule." "Shapes of species are determined by the repulsion of electron pairs according to VSEPR theory." "Carbon and silicon form giant covalent/network covalent structures." Intermolecular forces 4.4 "Intermolecular forces include London (dispersion) forces, dipole-dipole forces and hydrogen bonding." "The relative strengths of these interactions are London (dispersion) forces dipole-dipole forces hydrogen bonds." Metallic bonding 4.5 "A metallic bond is the electrostatic attraction between a lattice of positive ions and delocalized electrons." "The strength of a metallic bond depends on the charge of the ions and the radius of the metal ion." "Alloys usually contain more than one metal and have enhanced properties." Topic #5: Energetics/Thermochemistry- 9 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Measuring energy changes 5.1 "Heat is a form of energy." "Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles." "Total energy is conserved in chemical reactions." "Chemical reactions that involve transfer of heat between the system and the surroundings are described as endothermic or exothermic." "The enthalpy change (∆H) for chemical reactions is indicated in kJ mol-1." "∆H values are usually expressed under standard conditions, given by ∆H °, including standard states." Hess’s Law 5.2 "The enthalpy change for a reaction that is carried out in a series of steps is equal to the sum of the enthalpy changes for the individual steps." Bond enthalpies 5.3 "Bond-forming releases energy and bond-breaking requires energy." "Average bond enthalpy is the energy needed to break one mol of a bond in a gaseous molecule averaged over similar compounds." Want to get better grades and test scores? We can help. PrepScholar Tutors is the world's best tutoring service. We combine world-class expert tutors with our proprietary teaching techniques. Our students have gotten A's on thousands of classes, perfect 5's on AP tests, and ludicrously high SAT Subject Test scores. Whether you need help with science, math, English, social science, or more, we've got you covered. Get better grades today with PrepScholar Tutors. Topic #6: Chemical Kinetics- 7 Hours for Both SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Collision theory and rates of reaction 6.1 "Species react as a result of collisions of sufficient energy and proper orientation." "The rate of reaction is expressed as the change in concentration of a particular reactant/product per unit time." "Concentration changes in a reaction can be followed indirectly by monitoring changes in mass, volume and colour." "Activation energy (Ea) is the minimum energy that colliding molecules need in order to have successful collisions leading to a reaction." "By decreasing Ea, a catalyst increases the rate of a chemical reaction, without itself being permanently chemically changed." Topic #7: Equilibrium- 4.5 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Equilibrium 7.1 "A state of equilibrium is reached in a closed system when the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal." "The equilibrium law describes how the equilibrium constant (Kc) can be determined for a particular chemical reaction." "The magnitude of the equilibrium constant indicates the extent of a reaction at equilibrium and is temperature dependent." "The reaction quotient (Q) measures the relative amount of products and reactants present during a reaction at a particular point in time. Q is the equilibrium expression with non-equilibrium concentrations. The position of the equilibrium changes with changes in concentration, pressure, and temperature." "A catalyst has no effect on the position of equilibrium or the equilibrium constant." Topic #8: Acids and Bases- 6.5 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Theories of acids and bases 8.1 "A Brà ¸nsted–Lowry acid is a proton/H+ donor and a Brà ¸nsted–Lowry base is a proton/H+ acceptor." "Amphiprotic species can act as both Brà ¸nsted–Lowry acids and bases." "A pair of species differing by a single proton is called a conjugate acid-base pair." Properties of acids and bases 8.2 "Most acids have observable characteristic chemical reactions with reactive metals, metal oxides, metal hydroxides, hydrogen carbonates and carbonates." "Salt and water are produced in exothermic neutralization reactions." The pH scale 8.3 "pH = − log[H+(aq)] and [H+] = 10−pH." "A change of one pH unit represents a 10-fold change in the hydrogen ion concentration [ð   »Ã°   »+]." "pH values distinguish between acidic, neutral and alkaline solutions." "The ionic product constant, ð   ¾Ã°   ¾Ã° â€˜ ¤Ã° â€˜ ¤ = [H+][OH−] = 10−14 at 298 K." Strong and weak acids and bases 8.4 "Strong and weak acids and bases differ in the extent of ionization." "Strong acids and bases of equal concentrations have higher conductivities than weak acids and bases." "A strong acid is a good proton donor and has a weak conjugate base." "A strong base is a good proton acceptor and has a weak conjugate acid." Acid deposition 8.5 "Rain is naturally acidic because of dissolved CO2 and has a pH of 5.6. Acid deposition has a pH below 5.6." "Acid deposition is formed when nitrogen or sulfur oxides dissolve in water to form HNO3, HNO2, H2SO4 and H2SO3." "Sources of the oxides of sulfur and nitrogen and the effects of acid deposition should be covered." Topic #9: Redox Processes- 8 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Oxidation and reduction 9.1 "Oxidation and reduction can be considered in terms of oxygen gain/hydrogen loss, electron transfer or change in oxidation number." "An oxidizing agent is reduced and a reducing agent is oxidized." "Variable oxidation numbers exist for transition metals and for most main-group non-metals." "The activity series ranks metals according to the ease with which they undergo oxidation." "The Winkler Method can be used to measure biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), used as a measure of the degree of pollution in a water sample." Electrochemical cells 9.2 Voltaic (Galvanic) cells "Voltaic cells convert energy from spontaneous, exothermic chemical processes to electrical energy." "Oxidation occurs at the anode (negative electrode) and reduction occurs at the cathode (positive electrode) in a voltaic cell." Electrolytic cells "Electrolytic cells convert electrical energy to chemical energy, by bringing about non-spontaneous processes." "Oxidation occurs at the anode (positive electrode) and reduction occurs at the cathode (negative electrode) in an electrolytic cell." Topic #10: Organic Chemistry- 11 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Fundamentals of organic chemistry 10.1 "A homologous series is a series of compounds of the same family, with the same general formula, which differ from each other by a common structural unit." "Structural formulas can be represented in full and condensed format." "Structural isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different arrangements of atoms." "Functional groups are the reactive parts of molecules." "Saturated compounds contain single bonds only and unsaturated compounds contain double or triple bonds." "Benzene is an aromatic, unsaturated hydrocarbon." Functional group chemistry 10.2 Alkanes: "Alkanes have low reactivity and undergo free-radical substitution reactions." Alkenes: "Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes and undergo addition reactions. Bromine water can be used to distinguish between alkenes and alkanes." Alcohols: "Alcohols undergo nucleophilic substitution reactions with acids (also called esterification or condensation) and some undergo oxidation reactions." Halogenoalkanes: "Halogenoalkanes are more reactive than alkanes. They can undergo (nucleophilic) substitution reactions. A nucleophile is an electron-rich species containing a lone pair that it donates to an electron-deficient carbon." Polymers: "Addition polymers consist of a wide range of monomers and form the basis of the plastics industry." Benzene: "Benzene does not readily undergo addition reactions but does undergo electrophilic substitution reactions." Topic #11: Measurement and Data Processing- 10 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Uncertainties and errors in measurement and results 11.1 "Qualitative data includes all non-numerical information obtained from observations not from measurement." "Quantitative data are obtained from measurements, and are always associated with random errors/uncertainties, determined by the apparatus, and by human limitations such as reaction times." "Propagation of random errors in data processing shows the impact of the uncertainties on the final result." "Experimental design and procedure usually lead to systematic errors in measurement, which cause a deviation in a particular direction." "Repeat trials and measurements will reduce random errors but not systematic errors." Graphical techniques 11.2 "Graphical techniques are an effective means of communicating the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable, and can lead to determination of physical quantities." "Sketched graphs have labeled but unscaled axes, and are used to show qualitative trends, such as variables that are proportional or inversely proportional." "Drawn graphs have labeled and scaled axes, and are used in quantitative measurements." Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds 11.3 "The degree of unsaturation or index of hydrogen deficiency (IHD) can be used to determine from a molecular formula the number of rings or multiple bonds in a molecule." "Mass spectrometry (MS), proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H NMR) and infrared spectroscopy (IR) are techniques that can be used to help identify compounds and to determine their structure." Additional Higher Level Topics These topics (a total of 60 hours) are only for Higher Level students. Topic #12: Atomic Structure- 2 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Electrons in atoms (HL ONLY) 12.1 "In an emission spectrum, the limit of convergence at higher frequency corresponds to the first ionization energy." "Trends in first ionization energy across periods account for the existence of main energy levels and sub-levels in atoms." "Successive ionization energy data for an element give information that shows relations to electron configurations." Topic #13: The Periodic Table: Transition Metals- 4 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand First-row d-block elements (HL ONLY) 13.1 "Transition elements have variable oxidation states, form complex ions with ligands, have coloured compounds, and display catalytic and magnetic properties." "Zn is not considered to be a transition element as it does not form ions with incomplete d-orbitals." "Transition elements show an oxidation state of +2 when the s-electrons are removed." Coloured complexes (HL ONLY) 13.2 "The d sub-level splits into two sets of orbitals of different energy in a complex ion." "Complexes of d-block elements are coloured, as light is absorbed when an electron is excited between the d-orbitals." "The colour absorbed is complementary to the colour observed." Topic #14: Chemical Bonding and Structure- 7 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Further aspects of covalent bonding and structure (HL ONLY) 14.1 "Covalent bonds result from the overlap of atomic orbitals. A sigma bond (ÏÆ') is formed by the direct head-on/end-to-end overlap of atomic orbitals, resulting in electron density concentrated between the nuclei of the bonding atoms. A pi bond (Ï€) is formed by the sideways overlap of atomic orbitals, resulting in electron density above and below the plane of the nuclei of the bonding atoms." "Formal charge (FC) can be used to decide which Lewis (electron dot) structure is preferred from several. The FC is the charge an atom would have if all atoms in the molecule had the same electronegativity. FC = (Number of valence electrons)- ½(Number of bonding electrons)-(Number of non-bonding electrons). The Lewis (electron dot) structure with the atoms having FC values closest to zero is preferred." "Exceptions to the octet rule include some species having incomplete octets and expanded octets." "Delocalization involves electrons that are shared by/between all atoms in a molecule or ion as opposed to being localized between a pair of atoms." "Resonance involves using two or more Lewis (electron dot) structures to represent a particular molecule or ion. A resonance structure is one of two or more alternative Lewis (electron dot) structures for a molecule or ion that cannot be described fully with one Lewis (electron dot) structure alone." Hybridization (HL ONLY) 14.2 "A hybrid orbital results from the mixing of different types of atomic orbitals on the same atom." Want to get better grades and test scores? We can help. PrepScholar Tutors is the world's best tutoring service. We combine world-class expert tutors with our proprietary teaching techniques. Our students have gotten A's on thousands of classes, perfect 5's on AP tests, and ludicrously high SAT Subject Test scores. Whether you need help with science, math, English, social science, or more, we've got you covered. Get better grades today with PrepScholar Tutors. Topic #15: Energetics/Thermochemistry- 7 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Energy cycles (HL ONLY) 15.1 "Representative equations (eg M+(g) → M+(aq)) can be used for enthalpy/energy of hydration, ionization, atomization, electron affinity, lattice, covalent bond and solution." "Enthalpy of solution, hydration enthalpy and lattice enthalpy are related in an energy cycle." Entropy and spontaneity (HL ONLY) 15.2 "Entropy (S) refers to the distribution of available energy among the particles. The more ways the energy can be distributed the higher the entropy." "Gibbs free energy (G) relates the energy that can be obtained from a chemical reaction to the change in enthalpy (ΔH), change in entropy (ΔS), and absolute temperature (T)." "Entropy of gasliquidsolid under same conditions." Topic #16: Chemical Kinetics- 6 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Rate expression and reaction mechanism (HL ONLY) 16.1 "Reactions may occur by more than one step and the slowest step determines the rate of reaction (rate determining step/RDS)." "The molecularity of an elementary step is the number of reactant particles taking part in that step." "The order of a reaction can be either integer or fractional in nature. The order of a reaction can describe, with respect to a reactant, the number of particles taking part in the rate-determining step." "Rate equations can only be determined experimentally." "The value of the rate constant (k) is affected by temperature and its units are determined from the overall order of the reaction." "Catalysts alter a reaction mechanism, introducing a step with lower activation energy." Activation energy (HL ONLY) 16.2 "The Arrhenius equation uses the temperature dependence of the rate constant to determine the activation energy." "A graph of 1/T against ln k is a linear plot with gradient – Ea / R and intercept, lnA." "The frequency factor (or pre-exponential factor) (A) takes into account the frequency of collisions with proper orientations." Topic #17: Equilibrium- 4 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand The equilibrium law (HL ONLY) 17.1 "Le Chà ¢telier’s principle for changes in concentration can be explained by the equilibrium law." "The position of equilibrium corresponds to a maximum value of entropy and a minimum in the value of the Gibbs free energy." "The Gibbs free energy change of a reaction and the equilibrium constant can both be used to measure the position of an equilibrium reaction and are related by the equation, ∆G ° = −RT ln(ð   ¾)" Topic #18: Acids and Bases- 10 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Lewis acids and bases (HL ONLY) 18.1 "A Lewis acid is a lone pair acceptor and a Lewis base is a lone pair donor." "When a Lewis base reacts with a Lewis acid a coordinate bond is formed." "A nucleophile is a Lewis base and an electrophile is a Lewis acid." Calculations involving acids and bases (HL ONLY) 18.2 "The expression for the dissociation constant of a weak acid (Ka) and a weak base (Kb)." "For a conjugate acid base pair, Ka Ãâ€" Kb = Kw." "The relationship between Ka and pKa is (pKa = -log Ka), and between Kb and pKb is (pKb = -log Kb)." pH curves (HL ONLY) 18.3 "The characteristics of the pH curves produced by the different combinations of strong and weak acids and bases." "An acid–base indicator is a weak acid or a weak base where the components of the conjugate acid–base pair have different colours." "The relationship between the pH range of an acid–base indicator, which is a weak acid, and its pKa value." "The buffer region on the pH curve represents the region where small additions of acid or base result in little or no change in pH." "The composition and action of a buffer solution." Topic #19: Redox Processes- 6 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Electrochemical cells (HL ONLY) 19.1 "A voltaic cell generates an electromotive force (EMF) resulting in the movement of electrons from the anode (negative electrode) to the cathode (positive electrode) via the external circuit. The EMF is termed the cell potential (E º)." "The standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) consists of an inert platinum electrode in contact with 1 mol dm-3 hydrogen ion and hydrogen gas at 100 kPa and 298 K. The standard electrode potential (E º) is the potential (voltage) of the reduction half-equation under standard conditions measured relative to the SHE. Solute concentration is 1 mol dm-3 or 100 kPa for gases. E º of the SHE is 0 V." "When aqueous solutions are electrolysed, water can be oxidized to oxygen at the anode and reduced to hydrogen at the cathode. "ΔG º = -nFE º. When E º is positive, ΔG º is negative indicative of a spontaneous process. When E º is negative, ΔG º is positive indicative of a non-spontaneous process. When E º is 0, then ΔG º is 0." "Current, duration of electrolysis and charge on the ion affect the amount of product formed at the electrodes during electrolysis." "Electroplating involves the electrolytic coating of an object with a metallic thin layer." The coolest club of them all. Topic #20: Organic Chemistry- 12 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Types of organic reactions (HL ONLY) 20.1 Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions: "SN1 represents a nucleophilic unimolecular substitution reaction and SN2 represents a nucleophilic bimolecular substitution reaction. SN1 involves a carbocation intermediate. SN2 involves a concerted reaction with a transition state." "For tertiary halogenoalkanes the predominant mechanism is SN1 and for primary halogenoalkanes it is SN2. Both mechanisms occur for secondary halogenoalkanes." "The rate determining step (slow step) in an SN1 reaction depends only on the concentration of the halogenoalkane, rate = k[halogenoalkane]. For SN2, rate = k[halogenoalkane][nucleophile]. SN2 is stereospecific with an inversion of configuration at the carbon." "SN2 reactions are best conducted using aprotic, non-polar solvents and SN1 reactions are best conducted using protic, polar solvents." Electrophilic Addition Reactions: "An electrophile is an electron-deficient species that can accept electron pairs from a nucleophile. Electrophiles are Lewis acids." "Markovnikov’s rule can be applied to predict the major product in electrophilic addition reactions of unsymmetrical alkenes with hydrogen halides and interhalogens. The formation of the major product can be explained in terms of the relative stability of possible carbocations in the reaction mechanism." Electrophilic Substitution Reactions: "Benzene is the simplest aromatic hydrocarbon compound (or arene) and has a delocalized structure of Ï€ bonds around its ring. Each carbon to carbon bond has a bond order of 1.5. Benzene is susceptible to attack by electrophiles." Reduction Reactions: "Carboxylic acids can be reduced to primary alcohols (via the aldehyde). Ketones can be reduced to secondary alcohols. Typical reducing agents are lithium aluminium hydride (used to reduce carboxylic acids) and sodium borohydride." Synthetic routes (HL ONLY) 20.2 "The synthesis of an organic compound stems from a readily available starting material via a series of discrete steps. Functional group interconversions are the basis of such synthetic routes." "Retro-synthesis of organic compounds." Stereoisomerism (HL ONLY) 20.3 "Stereoisomers are subdivided into two classes- conformational isomers, which interconvert by rotation about a ÏÆ' bond and configurational isomers that interconvert only by breaking and reforming a bond. Configurational isomers are further subdivided into cis-trans and E/Z isomers and optical isomers." "Cis-trans isomers can occur in alkenes or cycloalkanes (or heteroanalogues) and differ in the positions of atoms (or groups) relative to a reference plane. According to IUPAC, E/Z isomers refer to alkenes of the form R1R2C=CR3R4 (R1 ≠  R2, R3 ≠  R4) where neither R1 nor R2 need be different from R3 or R4." "A chiral carbon is a carbon joined to four different atoms or groups." "An optically active compound can rotate the plane of polarized light as it passes through a solution of the compound. Optical isomers are enantiomers. Enantiomers are non-superimposeable mirror images of each other. Diastereomers are not mirror images of each other." "A racemic mixture (or racemate) is a mixture of two enantiomers in equal amounts and is optically inactive." Topic #21: Measurement and Analysis- 2 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds (HL ONLY) 21.1 "Structural identification of compounds involves several different analytical techniques including IR, 1H NMR and MS." "In a high resolution 1H NMR spectrum, single peaks present in low resolution can split into further clusters of peaks." "The structural technique of single crystal X-ray crystallography can be used to identify the bond lengths and bond angles of crystalline compounds." Options As a part of your IB Chemistry class you'll cover an additional subject from the list below (typically your teacher chooses which subject you'll cover). Whichever option is chosen, you'll cover 5-7 topics (15 hours total) for SL and an additional 3 or 4 topics (25 hours total) for HL. Option A: Materials- 15 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Materials science introduction A.1 "Materials are classified based on their uses, properties, or bonding and structure." "The properties of a material based on the degree of covalent, ionic or metallic character in a compound can be deduced from its position on a bonding triangle." "Composites are mixtures in which materials are composed of two distinct phases, a reinforcing phase that is embedded in a matrix phase." Metals and inductively coupled plasma (ICP) spectroscopy A.2 "Reduction by coke (carbon), a more reactive metal, or electrolysis are means of obtaining some metals from their ores." "The relationship between charge and the number of moles of electrons is given by Faraday’s constant, F. "Alloys are homogeneous mixtures of metals with other metals or non-metals." "Diamagnetic and paramagnetic compounds differ in electron spin pairing and their behaviour in magnetic fields." "Trace amounts of metals can be identified and quantified by ionizing them with argon gas plasma in Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP) Spectroscopy using Mass Spectroscopy ICP-MS and Optical Emission Spectroscopy ICP-OES." Catalysts A.3 "Reactants adsorb onto heterogeneous catalysts at active sites and the products desorb." "Homogeneous catalysts chemically combine with the reactants to form a temporary activated complex or a reaction intermediate." "Transition metal catalytic properties depend on the adsorption/absorption properties of the metal and the variable oxidation states." "Zeolites act as selective catalysts because of their cage structure." "Catalytic particles are nearly always nanoparticles that have large surface areas per unit mass." Liquid crystals A.4 "Liquid crystals are fluids that have physical properties (electrical, optical and elasticity) that are dependent on molecular orientation to some fixed axis in the material." "Thermotropic liquid-crystal materials are pure substances that show liquidcrystal behaviour over a temperature range." "Lyotropic liquid crystals are solutions that show the liquid-crystal state over a (certain) range of concentrations." "Nematic liquid crystal phase is characterized by rod shaped molecules which are randomly distributed but on average align in the same direction." Polymers A.5 "Thermoplastics soften when heated and harden when cooled." "A thermosetting polymer is a prepolymer in a soft solid or viscous state that changes irreversibly into a hardened thermoset by curing." "Elastomers are flexible and can be deformed under force but will return to nearly their original shape once the stress is released." "High density polyethene (HDPE) has no branching allowing chains to be packed together." "Low density polyethene (LDPE) has some branching and is more flexible." "Plasticizers added to a polymer increase the flexibility by weakening the intermolecular forces between the polymer chains." "Atom economy is a measure of efficiency applied in green chemistry." "Isotactic addition polymers have substituents on the same side." "Atactic addition polymers have the substituents randomly placed." Nanotechnology A.6 "Molecular self-assembly is the bottom-up assembly of nanoparticles and can occur by selectively attaching molecules to specific surfaces. Self-assembly can also occur spontaneously in solution." "Possible methods of producing nanotubes are arc discharge, chemical vapour deposition (CVD) and high pressure carbon monoxide (HIPCO)." "Arc discharge involves either vaporizing the surface of one of the carbon electrodes, or discharging an arc through metal electrodes submersed in a hydrocarbon solvent, which forms a small rod-shaped deposit on the anode." Environmental impact- plastics A.7 "Plastics do not degrade easily because of their strong covalent bonds." "Burning of polyvinyl chloride releases dioxins, HCl gas and incomplete hydrocarbon combustion products." "Dioxins contain unsaturated six-member heterocyclic rings with two oxygen atoms, usually in positions 1 and 4." "Chlorinated dioxins are hormone disrupting, leading to cellular and genetic damage." "Plastics require more processing to be recycled than other materials." "Plastics are recycled based on different resin types." Option A: Additional HL Materials Topics- 10 More Hours for HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Superconducting metals and X-ray crystallography (HL ONLY) A.8 "Superconductors are materials that offer no resistance to electric currents below a critical temperature." "The Meissner effect is the ability of a superconductor to create a mirror image magnetic field of an external field, thus expelling it." "Resistance in metallic conductors is caused by collisions between electrons and positive ions of the lattice." "The Bardeen–Cooper–Schrieffer (BCS) theory explains that below the critical temperature electrons in superconductors form Cooper pairs which move freely through the superconductor." "Type 1 superconductors have sharp transitions to superconductivity whereas Type 2 superconductors have more gradual transitions." "X-ray diffraction can be used to analyse structures of metallic and ionic compounds." "Crystal lattices contain simple repeating unit cells." "Atoms on faces and edges of unit cells are shared." "The number of nearest neighbours of an atom/ion is its coordination number." Condensation polymers(HL ONLY) A.9 "Condensation polymers require two functional groups on each monomer." "NH3, HCl and H2O are possible products of condensation reactions." "Kevlar ® is a polyamide with a strong and ordered structure. The hydrogen bonds between O and N can be broken with the use of concentrated sulfuric acid." Environmental impact- heavy metals(HL ONLY) A.10 "Toxic doses of transition metals can disturb the normal oxidation/reduction balance in cells through various mechanisms." "Some methods of removing heavy metals are precipitation, adsorption, and chelation." "Polydentate ligands form more stable complexes than similar monodentate ligands due to the chelate effect, which can be explained by considering entropy changes." Option B: Biochemistry- 15 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Introduction to biochemistry B.1 "The diverse functions of biological molecules depend on their structures and shapes." "Metabolic reactions take place in highly controlled aqueous environments." "Reactions of breakdown are called catabolism and reactions of synthesis are called anabolism." "Biopolymers form by condensation reactions and are broken down by hydrolysis reactions." "Photosynthesis is the synthesis of energy-rich molecules from carbon dioxide and water using light energy." "Respiration is a complex set of metabolic processes providing energy for cells." Proteins and enzymes B.2 "Proteins are polymers of 2-amino acids, joined by amide links (also known as peptide bonds)." "Amino acids are amphoteric and can exist as zwitterions, cations and anions." "Protein structures are diverse and are described at the primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary levels." "A protein’s three-dimensional shape determines its role in structural components or in metabolic processes." "Most enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts by binding specifically to a substrate at the active site." "As enzyme activity depends on the conformation, it is sensitive to changes in temperature and pH and the presence of heavy metal ions." "Chromatography separation is based on different physical and chemical principles." Lipids B.3 "Fats are more reduced than carbohydrates and so yield more energy when oxidized." "Triglycerides are produced by condensation of glycerol with three fatty acids and contain ester links. Fatty acids can be saturated, monounsaturated or polyunsaturated." "Phospholipids are derivatives of triglycerides." "Hydrolysis of triglycerides and phospholipids can occur using enzymes or in alkaline or acidic conditions." "Steroids have a characteristic fused ring structure, known as a steroidal backbone." "Lipids act as structural components of cell membranes, in energy storage, thermal and electrical insulation, as transporters of lipid soluble vitamins and as hormones." Carbohydrates B.4 "Carbohydrates have the general formula Cx(H2O)y." "Haworth projections represent the cyclic structures of monosaccharides." "Monosaccharides contain either an aldehyde group (aldose) or a ketone group (ketose) and several –OH groups." "Straight chain forms of sugars cyclize in solution to form ring structures containing an ether linkage." "Glycosidic bonds form between monosaccharides forming disaccharides and polysaccharides." "Carbohydrates are used as energy sources and energy reserves." Vitamins B.5 "Vitamins are organic micronutrients which (mostly) cannot be synthesized by the body but must be obtained from suitable food sources." "The solubility (water or fat) of a vitamin can be predicted from its structure." "Most vitamins are sensitive to heat." "Vitamin deficiencies in the diet cause particular diseases and affect millions of people worldwide." Biochemistry and the environment B.6 "Xenobiotics refer to chemicals that are found in an organism that are not normally present there." "Biodegradable/compostable plastics can be consumed or broken down by bacteria or other living organisms." "Host–guest chemistry involves the creation of synthetic host molecules that mimic some of the actions performed by enzymes in cells, by selectively binding to specific guest species, such as toxic materials in the environment." "Enzymes have been developed to help in the breakdown of oil spills and other industrial wastes." "Enzymes in biological detergents can improve energy efficiency by enabling effective cleaning at lower temperatures." "Biomagnification is the increase in concentration of a substance in a food chain." "Green chemistry, also called sustainable chemistry, is an approach to chemical research and engineering that seeks to minimize the production and release to the environment of hazardous substances." Option B: Additional HL Biochemistry Topics- 10 More Hours for HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Proteins and enzymes (HL ONLY) B.7 "Inhibitors play an important role in regulating the activities of enzymes." "Amino acids and proteins can act as buffers in solution." "Protein assays commonly use UV-vis spectroscopy and a calibration curve based on known standards." Nucleic acids(HL ONLY) B.8 "Nucleotides are the condensation products of a pentose sugar, phosphoric acid and a nitrogenous base- adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T) or uracil (U)." "Polynucleotides form by condensation reactions." "DNA is a double helix of two polynucleotide strands held together by hydrogen bonds." "RNA is usually a single polynucleotide chain that contains uracil in place of thymine, and a sugar ribose in place of deoxyribose." "The sequence of bases in DNA determines the primary structure of proteins synthesized by the cell using a triplet code, known as the genetic code, which is universal." "Genetically modified organisms have genetic material that has been altered by genetic engineering techniques, involving transferring DNA between species." Biological pigments (HL ONLY) B.9 "Biological pigments are coloured compounds produced by metabolism." "The colour of pigments is due to highly conjugated systems with delocalized electrons, which have intense absorption bands in the visible region." "Porphyrin compounds, such as hemoglobin, myoglobin, chlorophyll and many cytochromes are chelates of metals with large nitrogen-containing macrocyclic ligands." "Hemoglobin and myoglobin contain heme groups with the porphyrin group bound to an iron(II) ion." "Cytochromes contain heme groups in which the iron ion interconverts between iron(II) and iron(III) during redox reactions." "Anthocyanins are aromatic, water-soluble pigments widely distributed in plants. Their specific colour depends on metal ions and pH." "Carotenoids are lipid-soluble pigments, and are involved in harvesting light in photosynthesis. They are susceptible to oxidation, catalysed by light." Stereochemistry in biomolecules(HL ONLY) B.10 "With one exception, amino acids are chiral, and only the L-configuration is found in proteins." "Naturally occurring unsaturated fat is mostly in the cis form, but food processing can convert it into the trans form." "D and L stereoisomers of sugars refer to the configuration of the chiral carbon atom furthest from the aldehyde or ketone group, and D forms occur most frequently in nature." "Ring forms of sugars have isomers, known as ÃŽ ± and ÃŽ ², depending on whether the position of the hydroxyl group at carbon 1 (glucose) or carbon 2 (fructose) lies below the plane of the ring (ÃŽ ±) or above the plane of the ring (ÃŽ ²)." "Vision chemistry involves the light activated interconversion of cis- and trans- isomers of retinal." Option C: Energy- 15 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Energy sources C.1 "A useful energy source releases energy at a reasonable rate and produces minimal pollution." "The quality of energy is degraded as heat is transferred to the surroundings. Energy and materials go from a concentrated into a dispersed form. The quantity of the energy available for doing work decreases." "Renewable energy sources are naturally replenished. Non-renewable energy sources are finite." "Energy density = energy released from fuel volume of fuel consumed." "Specific energy = energy released from fuel mass of fuel consumed." "The effeciency of an energy transfer = useful output energy total input energy x 100%." Fossil fuels C.2 "Fossil fuels were formed by the reduction of biological compounds that contain carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur and oxygen." "Petroleum is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons that can be split into different component parts called fractions by fractional distillation." "Crude oil needs to be refined before use. The different fractions are separated by a physical process in fractional distillation." "The tendency of a fuel to auto-ignite, which leads to â€Å"knocking† in a car engine, is related to molecular structure and measured by the octane number." "The performance of hydrocarbons as fuels is improved by the cracking and catalytic reforming reactions." "Coal gasification and liquefaction are chemical processes that convert coal to gaseous and liquid hydrocarbons." "A carbon footprint is the total amount of greenhouse gases produced during human activities. It is generally expressed in equivalent tons of carbon dioxide." Nuclear fusion and fission C.3 Nuclear fusion "Light nuclei can undergo fusion reactions as this increases the binding energy per nucleon." "Fusion reactions are a promising energy source as the fuel is inexpensive and abundant, and no radioactive waste is produced." "Absorption spectra are used to analyse the composition of stars." Nuclear fission "Heavy nuclei can undergo fission reactions as this increases the binding energy per nucleon." "235U undergoes a fission chain reaction: U235 92 + n10 → U 236 92 → X + Y + neutrons." "The critical mass is the mass of fuel needed for the reaction to be self-sustaining." "239Pu, used as a fuel in â€Å"breeder reactors†, is produced from 238U by neutron capture." "Radioactive waste may contain isotopes with long and short half-lives." "Half-life is the time it takes for half the number of atoms to decay." Solar energy C.4 "Light can be absorbed by chlorophyll and other pigments with a conjugated electronic structure." "Photosynthesis converts light energy into chemical energy: 6CO2 + 6H2O == C6H12O6 + 6O2" "Fermentation of glucose produces ethanol which can be used as a biofuel: C6H12O6 == 2C2H5OH + 2CO2." "Energy content of vegetable oils is similar to that of diesel fuel but they are not used in internal combustion engines as they are too viscous." "Transesterification between an ester and an alcohol with a strong acid or base catalyst produces a different ester: RCOOR1 + R2OH == RCOOR2 + R1OH." "In the transesterification process, involving a reaction with an alcohol in the presence of a strong acid or base, the triglyceride vegetable oils are converted to a mixture mainly comprising of alkyl esters and glycerol, but with some fatty acids." "Transesterification with ethanol or methanol produces oils with lower viscosity that can be used in diesel engines." Environmental impact- global warming C.5 "Greenhouse gases allow the passage of incoming solar short wavelength radiation but absorb the longer wavelength radiation from the Earth. Some of the absorbed radiation is re-radiated back to Earth." "There is a heterogeneous equilibrium between concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide and aqueous carbon dioxide in the oceans." "Greenhouse gases absorb IR radiation as there is a change in dipole moment as the bonds in the molecule stretch and bend." "Particulates such as smoke and dust cause global dimming as they reflect sunlight, as do clouds." Option C: Additional HL Energy Topics- 10 More Hours for HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Electrochemistry, rechargeable batteries and fuel cells (HL ONLY) C.6 "An electrochemical cell has internal resistance due to the finite time it takes for ions to diffuse. The maximum current of a cell is limited by its internal resistance." "The voltage of a battery depends primarily on the nature of the materials used while the total work that can be obtained from it depends on their quantity." "In a primary cell the electrochemical reaction is not reversible. Rechargeable cells involve redox reactions that can be reversed using electricity." "A fuel cell can be used to convert chemical energy, contained in a fuel that is consumed, directly to electrical energy." "Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) are a possible sustainable energy source using different carbohydrates or substrates present in waste waters as the fuel." "The Nernst equation can be used to calculate the potential of a half-cell in an electrochemical cell, under non-standard conditions." "The electrodes in a concentration cell are the same but the concentration of the electrolyte solutions at the cathode and anode are different." Nuclear fusion and nuclear fission(HL ONLY) C.7 Nuclear fusion: "The mass defect (∆m) is the difference between the mass of the nucleus and the sum of the masses of its individual nucleons." "The nuclear binding energy (ΔE) is the energy required to separate a nucleus into protons and neutrons." Nuclear fission: "The energy produced in a fission reaction can be calculated from the mass difference between the products and reactants using the Einstein mass–energy equivalence relationship ð   ¸ = ð â€˜Å¡c^2." "The different isotopes of uranium in uranium hexafluoride can be separated, using diffusion or centrifugation causing fuel enrichment." "The effusion rate of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of the molar mass (Graham’s Law)." "Radioactive decay is kinetically a first order process with the half-life related to the decay constant by the equation ð Å"† = ln 2 /ð â€˜ ¡1 ." "The dangers of nuclear energy are due to the ionizing nature of the radiation it produces which leads to the production of oxygen free radicals such as superoxide (O2-), and hydroxyl (HO ·). These free radicals can initiate chain reactions that can damage DNA and enzymes in living cells." Photovoltaic cells and dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSC)(HL ONLY) C.8 "Molecules with longer conjugated systems absorb light of longer wavelength." "The electrical conductivity of a semiconductor increases with an increase in temperature whereas the conductivity of metals decreases." "The conductivity of silicon can be increased by doping to produce n-type and p- type semiconductors." "Solar energy can be converted to electricity in a photovoltaic cell." "DSSCs imitate the way in which plants harness solar energy. Electrons are "injected" from an excited molecule directly into the TiO2 semiconductor." "The use of nanoparticles coated with light-absorbing dye increases the effective surface area and allows more light over a wider range of the visible spectrum to be absorbed." Option D: Medicinal Chemistry- 15 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Pharmaceutical products and drug action D.1 "In animal studies, the therapeutic index is the lethal dose of a drug for 50% of the population (LD50) divided by the minimum effective dose for 50% of the population (ED50)." "In humans, the therapeutic index is the toxic dose of a drug for 50% of the population (TD50) divided by the minimum effective dose for 50% of the population (ED50)." "The therapeutic window is the range of dosages between the minimum amounts of the drug that produce the desired effect and a medically unacceptable adverse effect." "Dosage, tolerance, addiction and side effects are considerations of drug administration." "Bioavailability is the fraction of the administered dosage that reaches the target part of the human body." "The main steps in the development of synthetic drugs include identifying the need and structure, synthesis, yield and extraction." "Drug–receptor interactions are based on the structure of the drug and the site of activity." Aspirin and penicillin D.2 Aspirin: "Mild analgesics function by intercepting the pain stimulus at the source, often by interfering with the production of substances that cause pain, swelling or fever." "Aspirin is prepared from salicylic acid." "Aspirin can be used as an anticoagulant, in prevention of the recurrence of heart attacks and strokes and as a prophylactic." Penicillin: "Penicillins are antibiotics produced by fungi." "A beta-lactam ring is a part of the core structure of penicillins." "Some antibiotics work by preventing cross-linking of the bacterial cell walls." "Modifying the side-chain results in penicillins that are more resistant to the penicillinase enzyme." Opiates D.3 "The ability of a drug to cross the blood–brain barrier depends on its chemical structure and solubility in water and lipids." "Opiates are natural narcotic analgesics that are derived from the opium poppy." "Morphine and codeine are used as strong analgesics. Strong analgesics work by temporarily bonding to receptor sites in the brain, preventing the transmission of pain impulses without depressing the central nervous system." "Medical use and addictive properties of opiate compounds are related to the presence of opioid receptors in the brain." pH regulation of the stomach D.4 "Non-specific reactions, such as the use of antacids, are those that work to reduce the excess stomach acid." "Active metabolites are the active forms of a drug after it has been processed by the body." Antiviral medications D.5 "Viruses lack a cell structure and so are more difficult to target with drugs than bacteria." "Antiviral drugs may work by altering the cell’s genetic material so that the virus cannot use it to multiply. Alternatively, they may prevent the viruses from multiplying by blocking enzyme activity within the host cell." Environmental impact of some medications D.6 "High-level waste (HLW) is waste that gives off large amounts of ionizing radiation for a long time." "Low-level waste (LLW) is waste that gives off small amounts of ionizing radiation for a short time." "Antibiotic resistance occurs when micro-organisms become resistant to antibacterials." Option D: Additional HL Medicinal Chemistry Topics- 10 More Hours for HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Taxol- a chiral auxiliary case study (HL ONLY) D.7 "Taxol is a drug that is commonly used to treat several different forms of cancer." "Taxol naturally occurs in yew trees but is now commonly synthetically produced." "A chiral auxiliary is an optically active substance that is temporarily incorporated into an organic synthesis so that it can be carried out asymmetrically with the selective formation of a single enantiomer." Nuclear medicine (HL ONLY) D.8 "Alpha, beta, gamma, proton, neutron and positron emissions are all used for medical treatment." "Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is an application of NMR technology." "Radiotherapy can be internal and/or external." "Targeted Alpha Therapy (TAT) and Boron Neutron Capture Therapy (BNCT) are two methods which are used in cancer treatment." Drug detection and analysis (HL ONLY) D.9 "Organic structures can be analysed and identified through the use of infrared spectroscopy, mass spectroscopy and proton NMR." "The presence of alcohol in a sample of breath can be detected through the use of either a redox reaction or a fuel cell type of breathalyser." Practical Scheme of Work You also need to complete experiments and experimental reports as a part of any IB Science course. For SL, there is 40 hours of material. For HL, there is 60 hours of material. Here are the activities: Practical activities- 20 hours for SL and 40 hours for HL Lab work in class counts towards these hours Individual investigation (internal assessment-IA)- 10 hours for SL and HL A lab project along with a report that counts as 20% of your IB exam scores (written exam counts for the other 80%) Group 4 Project- 10 hours for SL and HL Students are separated into groups and must conduct an experiment and write a report. Hopefully, yours won't end in smoke! What’s Next? Looking for notes and a study guide for IB Chemistry? We have a complete guide to IB Chemistry, a breakdown (so to speak) of what enzymes are and what they do, and specific tips for balancing chemical equations. You can also find out where to buy past IB Chemistry papers here! Curious about how you can use your chemistry knowledge outside the classroom? Try out these three recipes for slime and see which combination of ingredients has what effect! And if after doing this your kitchen mysteriously comes down with a case of the clogged drains, you'll want to learn how to use muriatic acid safely and effectively to solve the problem. Are you hoping to squeeze in some extra IB classes? Learn about the IB courses offered online. Studying for the SAT? Check out our complete guide to the SAT. Taking the SAT in the next month? Check out our guide to cramming. Not sure where you want to go to college? Check out our guide to finding your target school. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points? We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Personals IELTS Scores Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Personals IELTS Scores - Coursework Example In this case, the math test is considered to be independent variable while scores of personal IELTS scores in listening and reading are considered to be dependent variables. The IELTS test can be defined as a high stakes selection test that is applied in measuring the proficiency in the English language of NESB students who intend to study in a tertiary institution (Hawkey 2006). The test report is based on the test performance and it includes a band score that is between 0-9 for every subtest as well as an overall score; the mean of the results. The IELTS which is considered as the admission tool is seen to have become popular for the past decade (Hawkey 2006)Null HypothesisThere is no statistically significant difference between the mean scores of personal IELTS scores in listening and reading when doing math test.Alternative HypothesisThere is no statistically significant difference between the mean scores of personal IELTS scores in listening and reading when doing math test.The table above shows that FMU6PA group has a mean score of 7.5 and 8 for listening and reading respectively. The standard deviation is also 0.39 and 0.3 respectively. This means that the variation in listening data is higher than that of reading. The median and mean is almost the same for reading and this implies that the data is normally distributed. The table above shows that Foundation science group has a mean score of 7.7 and 6 for listening and reading respectively.